Opium Trade from Anadolu to Indonesia

With the unparalleled document studies of Dr. Jan Schmidt

Opium Trade from Anatolia to Indonesia

By: Osman Öndeş

The discomfort caused by the successive drug epidemic investigations and arrests today brings to light a centuries-old story regarding the export of opium from İzmir to world markets.

Dr. Jan Schmidt was an academic who transcended all forms of admiration and respect with his document studies on "From Anatolia to Indonesia - Opium Trade and The Dutch Community of İzmir, 1820-1940."

This work, which examines the subject of opium, was published in 1998 by the Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologische Institutte in Istanbul and expresses a unique seriousness and scientific rigor in its field.

Dr. Joannes (Jan) Schmidt passed away on August 11, 2025. Dr. Petra de Bruijn, a lecturer in Ottoman Linguistics at Leiden University, recounted his life story following Dr. Joannes Schmidt's death; "We wish strength and comfort to his wife, friends, and family. Jan Schmidt will be remembered as one of the most productive and knowledgeable scholars in the field of Ottoman codicology and history."

"Jan Schmidt was born in 1951 in Arnhem, Netherlands. Between 1969 and 1985, he intermittently studied History and Middle Eastern Languages and Culture at Leiden University. In 1992, he completed his doctorate with a new interpretation of Künhü l-aḫbār (1590s).

He became a lecturer in Turkish and Ottoman studies at the University of Manchester in England and later returned to his alma mater. From 1998 to 2007, he worked as a cataloging specialist on various projects funded by NWO (Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research) at the University Library. Additionally, from 2004 to 2016, he served as a lecturer in Turkish in the Department of Middle Eastern Studies. After retiring in 2016, he maintained his connection as a visiting researcher with the Leiden University Library (2017-2019) and the department (2019-2020). Notably, his four-volume work titled "Catalog of Turkish Manuscripts in the Leiden University Library and Other Collections in the Netherlands" (2000-2012) is a testament to his meticulous and generous research on Ottoman-Turkish manuscripts. The project initiated by Prof. Jan Just Witkam, the former curator of the Leiden University Eastern Manuscripts collection, involved the renewal of the Latin catalog that had been in use for over a century. Jan Schmidt not only updated the catalog but also described the manuscripts in much greater detail and comprehensiveness."

Dr. Jan Schmidt's work "From Anatolia to Indonesia - Opium Trade and The Dutch Community of İzmir, 1820-1940" serves as a source for many appreciations regarding research on opium. The price of this work in English was 59.50 Euros in 2009, and it is published by "Nederlands Instituut Voor Het Nabije Oosten Witte Singel 25, Postbus 9515, 2300 Ra. Leiden The Netherlands."

Dutch Levantines Settled in İzmir

While examining the activities of Dutch Levantines in İzmir as ship agents, I have also conducted studies on the families of Jan Schmidt van Lennep and Dutilh, some of which I published in my work titled "History of Ship Owners and Agents."

I have derived great pleasure from getting to know Hendrik Dutilh, the last representative of the Dutilh family, and conversing with him on various occasions. For some reason, although Jacop (Jan) Schmidt van Lennep appears prominently as an opium exporter from İzmir, deeper research will reveal that names such as Baltazzi, Alfred Keun, Wissing, and Dutilh hold very important ranks.

The primary reason Dutch traders chose the İzmir-Aegean region for opium cultivation was the unlimited privileges granted to them by the Capitulations. As a result, the Ottoman State also became a victim of the opium curse. Thus, the sources of the opium market were Karahisar, Konya, Gediz, Akhisar, Çal, Alaşehir, Balıkesir, Uşak, Kula, and Çeşme.

This work, based on a wide bibliography that includes valuable Turkish scholars such as Turhan Baytop, Seyfettin Gürsel, Reşat Kasaba, Uygur Kocabaşoğlu, Hüsnü Sarım, Kamran Şerif, Afet İnan, Ayhan Songar, and Turgay A. Üner, addresses the catastrophe of associating the opium curse with the Turks, with the line "More shocking to the foreign residents in the Empire was the abolition of the Capitulations on September 7, 1914" appearing on its last pages (p. 170).

Initially, the essence of the opium shipments from Anatolia to Indonesia was to acclimatize the colonial Indonesian population to opium. This subject also reaches the core of the enforcement studies through the characteristics of the Levantines in İzmir being ship agents.

The industrial revolution significantly contributed to the increasingly effective process of colonization and thus the expansion of the opium trade. This process was further strengthened by the communication revolution brought about by the invention of new techniques and their global application. The most important elements of this development were railways, telegraphs, and steamship transportation. The Levant was greatly affected by these inventions, and especially in the second half of the century, İzmir became a port of export for opium trade.

A decree ordering the construction of a railway between İzmir, Manisa, Kasaba, Uşak, and Afyon Karahisar, all of which were significant opium centers, further empowered Levantine traders and ship agents. Indeed, Karahisar produced two-thirds of Anatolia's opium, and the travel time to İzmir would decrease from twenty to twenty-five days to just eighteen hours. The Anatolian railways had a significant impact on agricultural production and contributed to the doubling of exports via sea from İzmir between 1863 and 1838. (Source: Jan Schmidt)

The first regular steamship service between İzmir and Istanbul was established in 1835, operated by two British and one Austrian ship. It was possible to reach both destinations in six days twice a week; whereas sailing ships sometimes required a month. In 1840, the British Peninsular & Oriental and Steamships Inc. (P&O) launched a regular service between England and Egypt. At the same time, the company also provided passenger and cargo services connecting London with Malta, Athens (Piraeus), İzmir, Istanbul, Beirut, and Jaffa. The Istanbul route increased interest in this line, as Istanbul merchants approached an import volume of 1.2 million sterling and an export volume of 1 million sterling in 1842 and 1843.

The first opium transported by steamships was shipped in 1837 by the P&O liner "Tagus."

The first 40 boxes of opium were sent from İzmir to Batavia by A.J. Johnson & Co. The P&O side-wheeler cargo/passenger ship "Achilles" carried out the opium shipment from İzmir to overseas countries on January 4, 1847, under the command of Captain Wilson.

From 1852 onwards, opium shipments began to be made to Singapore and Australia every fifteen days on P&O ships on behalf of the East India Company. During this period, some cargoes were also sent to Batavia overland. The side-wheeler "Achilles," built in 1838 with a tonnage of 992 grt, was purchased by De J&G Burns in 1845. (Source: The Ships Lists)

Jacop Van Lennep's nephews reported in early 1853 that P&O could load opium for Batavia without discharging in Singapore. They were greatly influenced by the iron-hulled P&O side-wheeler "Pottinger," built in 1846 but expanded in 1849. This ship, which first appeared in March 1850, was the largest seen in the Levant. In September, he toured this ship and found it magnificent. It had made multiple trips from Southampton to Istanbul and back within ten days and a few hours.

The side-wheeler "Pottinger," built in 1846 at William Fairbairn & Sons' Millward County yard, was part of the P&O fleet. It had a tonnage of 1,300 grt, 890 nrt, and a length of 68.25 m (224.0 ft), with a width of 18.59 m (61.0 ft) including the funnels and a draft of 5.330 m (17.6 ft).

The steam engine built by Ravenhill & Co Works Blackwall Country produced a maximum power of 450 ihp and had a maximum cruising speed of 10 knots. It could accommodate 90 passengers in first class. Its cargo capacity was 325 cubic meters. The reason I detail this is to remind that there were no Turkish-flagged merchant ships at that time.

One of the first British-flagged steamships to call at İzmir was the "Osmanlı," which loaded 11 boxes of opium for Liverpool on January 28, 1848, by some Greek merchants.

The "Osmanlı," built by C. Michell & Co. Low Walker with sled number 394, had a tonnage of 2283 grt, 1492 nrt, and its main steam engine produced a maximum power of 283 nhp. The first shipowner company was Moss Steam Ship Co. Ltd. from Glasgow. On January 3, 1911, it experienced a mechanical failure while sailing from Alexandria to Ipswich and was towed by Hamilton to Spithead. On March 5, 1912, it again broke down, and after transferring its cargo to another ship, it was abandoned. Subsequently, it was dismantled at Forth Shipbroking Co. in Bo’ness. (Source: Tyne Built Ships & Shipbuilding).

The side-wheeler "Bosphorus" also departed from İzmir on January 1, 1850, loaded with 21 boxes of opium. İzmir Port, especially with the opium export, entered among the leading ports of British P&O, Dutch NHM, and other shipping companies, and regular steamship services began between Southampton and İzmir with British Screw Steam Company ships operating as İzmir-Liverpool. These ships loaded cargo from İzmir on the 15th-16th of each month. However, particularly P&O ships transported more opium cargo to US ports. Jacop Van Lennep wrote that they loaded whatever cargo there was on side-wheeler steamships.

Among the list of ships calling at İzmir port were: "Hendrica Elisabeth, Jonge Maria, Boreas, Twee Gebroeders, Meeuw, Achipel, Herstelling, Anna Rebecca, Anna Pawlowna, Snelheid, Amstel, Jansen, Ariadne, Briseis, Courier, Jarjen Brower, Jan Jacob, Fortuna, Pottinger, Jupiter, Clara Zoe, Geertruida, Madras, Haddington, City of London, Euxine, Rajah, Sultan, Austria, Saxon, Conte Dandolo, Jonge Maria, Vrouw Maria, Nijverheid, Carolina, Militiades, Jews, Sevea, Singapore, Hesperus, Alarm, Zeeneeuw, Eendragt, Twee Gebroeders, Queen," which indicates the presence of sailing ships, side-wheelers, and in recent years, propeller ships. Detailed records exist for opium exports from İzmir by Jacop Van Lennep, Dutilh, Lochner & Co., Salamon di Heym Lewi, Raphael di Haim Levi, Wissing, Hoeting & Co., Dul P. van Veen & Sons, Pagy & Buess, P. Pasquali, and other merchants. (Source: Joannes Schmidt, Clyde and Tyne Built Ships & Shipbuilding).

Despite everything, as propeller ships began to increasingly appear at sea, they were technologically very advanced. Due to high pressure, pistons occasionally broke or malfunctioned. Opium traders were apprehensive about their cargo being affected by the sea. However, due to fierce competition among shipping companies, they continuously lowered freight rates. In 1852, another shipping company, besides P&O, began to deploy faster ships between Levant and Chinese ports. While P&O ships had a maximum cruising speed of 8.5 knots, this company's ships could achieve a maximum speed of 10.5 knots.

In May of that year, the first iron-hulled propeller steam cargo/passenger ship "British Queen," belonging to Cunard Ship Co. Ltd., made a voyage to İzmir. This company had the right to establish a postal agreement between Liverpool and İzmir. In 1851, a voyage was made to İzmir every month, while before the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853, P&O had 16 side-wheeler passenger/cargo ships. By 1855, Cunard Line had acquired 5 propeller steam passenger ships.

Jacop van Lennep lamented the backwardness of the Netherlands against British shipping companies. During this process, the Trading Company continued to ship more opium with British ships. However, the last opium shipment, loaded on the sailing Dutch-flagged "Boreas" on February 21, 1848, was sent from İzmir to the ports of Vlaardingen and Rotterdam under the command of Captain C. Van Gelderen. The freight rates for these ships were lower than those of steamships, but their travel times were longer. (Source: Joannes Schmidt).

In early May 1854, P&O and Cunard ships suspended their services due to troop shipments to Istanbul. During this period, despite some interruptions, "British Queen" continued to load opium from İzmir. Thus, 852 full boxes and 909 half boxes of opium were loaded from İzmir, with the final destination being China.

Looking back to 1851, that year the Ottoman Hayriye Company was established, and in 1853, the Egyptian Aziziye Company began its services between Istanbul and İzmir. Additionally, Société Hellenique de Navigation a Vapeur and Compagnie Grecque et Oriental ships carried opium cargo from İzmir to ports in England and the Netherlands. Later, ships flagged from Belgium, Italy, Spain, the USA, and Germany joined these voyages. Before 1870, Dutch ships constituted the majority in İzmir.

In 1857, Koninklijke Stoomboot Maatschappij - Royal Dutch Steamship Company KNSM began its services with five ships on the Marseille - Genoa routes, and the first Dutch-flagged side-wheeler passenger/cargo ship "Nederlander," built in 1823, made a voyage to İzmir in 1866.

The main product exported from İzmir by the Trading Company on behalf of Jacop van Lennep has always been opium. However, despite the opium export being the main business of the other Dutch family in İzmir, the Dutilhs, opium export occupied a smaller portion of Van Lennep's total trading activities.

In November 1870, Alfred Lavino was commissioned to ship 125 boxes of opium with a KNSM steamship arriving in İzmir through Lavino Trading Company. Richard van Lennep noted in his memoirs that this marked the beginning of more intense commercial relations between the Netherlands and the Ottoman Empire.

In 1856, the "Rhone," a ship built by Scott & Co. in Greenock with a tonnage of 848, made a stop in Istanbul under the command of Captain Wilko Wilkens and arrived in İzmir at the end of the same month. Alfred Lavino exported 75 boxes of opium with this ship. The "Rhone" later loaded 9 more boxes and transported a total of 84 boxes of opium via Çeşme and Malta to Rotterdam.

The "Rhone" was a three-masted propeller ship with an iron hull. It was built at the Cartsdyke East yard of Scott & Co. in Greenock with sled number 32. It had a capacity of 600 dwt, and its main steam engine, manufactured by A.& J. Nelson at Hyde Park Foundry in Glasgow, produced a maximum power of 160 nhp.

In 1864, it was sold to Geritt & Co. based in Rotterdam. In 1865, it was purchased by Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomboot Maatschappij (KNSM) in Amsterdam. While sailing from İzmir to Amsterdam with a cargo of dried grapes, it succumbed to a violent storm and ran aground near Tunis on December 9, 1870. Twenty-five people, including passengers, drowned. Only one crew member survived. (Source: Tyne Built Ships & Shipbuilding).

The passenger/cargo ship side-wheeler "Tagus." Source: P&O Collection.

The "Tagus," which made the first opium voyage to İzmir, continued its voyages from 1837 to 1864.

During this period, it was part of the fleets of Richard Bourne & Partners; Willcox & Anderson; Peninsular Steam Navigation Company; P&O Steam Navigation Company. The side-wheeler passenger/cargo ship and the first shipowner company was "Richard Bourne & Partners" from Dublin.

In 1843, The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company purchased it and assigned it to the Alexandria route. In 1843, it made its first Southampton/Istanbul voyage, stopping at Gibraltar, Malta, Piraeus, İzmir, Mytilene, Çanakkale, Samsun, Sinop, and Trabzon on its second voyage.

In 1847, the "Tagus," chartered on behalf of the Ottoman state to transport military units from Istanbul to Thessaloniki and later from Istanbul to Trabzon, was involved in a collision with an Ottoman frigate in 1848 and returned to England for repairs.

Jacob van Lennep, considered from Seydiköy, passed away in İzmir on February 1, 1855, and was buried in the cemetery in Seydiköy. Eulalie Catherine van Lennep, the sister of Henry John van Lennep, was born in İzmir, Turkey, in 1822 and passed away in İzmir-Seydiköy in 1909.

Source: SeaNews Türkiye