Istanbul, historically a major maritime trade hub, has been among the world's safest natural harbors, particularly with the reliable shelter of the Golden Horn.
Throughout history, Istanbul has been a major maritime trade center and has been regarded as one of the safest natural harbors in the world. Particularly, the Golden Horn has always maintained its characteristic as a reliable harbor where vessels could seek refuge during harsh weather conditions throughout history.
For many centuries, a wide variety of valuable trade goods arriving from the Black Sea, through Russia, and from European and Asian countries, especially a significant portion of spices from India, were always dispatched to their destinations via Istanbul. Since there were no tides in the Golden Horn, there was no need for lighters and barges during the loading and unloading of ships. Maintenance and repair of vessels were carried out in the Golden Horn, and provisions could be easily sourced from the surrounding areas. However, over time, due to the inadequacy of facilities, services began to lag, and the unloading and loading of ships started to be delayed. As a result, the prices of trade goods increased, and the risks involved grew unnecessarily. Above all, there were no modern lighthouses along our coasts. Ships navigating our waters had to take every kind of risk at night. Furthermore, our ports, especially Istanbul, were devoid of docks where ships could easily berth. Due to insufficient facilities, goods could not be loaded in a timely manner, and some of those unloaded from ships remained exposed.
The Istanbul Port Authority was initially located where the Kurşunlu Vault (Underground Mosque) is situated. In 1864, when the single-story building in service burned down, the officials were placed on the Peyk-i Şevket ship, and when the ship's cabins were insufficient, they were forced to work under a canopy built on the deck. The first buoy was placed in the Istanbul harbor in 1870. At that time, the Port Minister Huert Pasha had ordered a buoy from England in 1869, and this buoy, which arrived a year later, was installed in a suitable location in the harbor. Three years later, it was decided to order 25 buoys in the name of the Shipyard, each commissioned to a merchant named Apik Efendi for 430 British pounds, including chains and anchors. The construction of the buoys was to begin within three months, and they were to be delivered by the end of the sixth month. The buoys would be inspected by the British Admiralty, and if deemed suitable, they would be stamped to certify their durability and usability. Once completed, these buoys were placed in suitable locations at the entrance of the Bosphorus and began to be used.
In the harbor, each agency had one or more buoys to moor incoming ships, as well as a team of boatmen. (The boatmen's team would be located off Salacak; whichever agency's boatmen first boarded the incoming ship would claim that ship.) Passengers arriving by ship would disembark using these boats; likewise, trade goods were also transported to the shore using these boats. The resulting disorder frustrated both passengers and traders.
In October 1853, when the Crimean War broke out between us and Russia, our allies, England and France, sent their fleets to Istanbul to deliver troops and war supplies. However, great difficulties were encountered during their unloading. Both soldiers and war materials were brought ashore with incredible difficulty, and the crew faced challenges that led to accidents and losses that could not be prevented.
The construction of the first docks in Istanbul and the operation of modern lighthouses along our coasts could only be realized in the years following the Crimean War. When the Crimean War ended and the Paris Congress convened in 1856, the inadequacy of port services and coastal security in the Ottoman Empire was among the issues discussed.
Both England and France, aiming to establish closer commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire, recognized the need for the construction of docks at the Istanbul harbor and the placement of lighthouses along the coasts, and they contacted the government to insist on the dangers and inconveniences of such a disorganized situation without docks and lighthouses.
Indeed, in 1856, lighthouses were constructed and put into service in Istanbul at Anadolu Feneri, Rumeli Feneri, Fenerbahçe, Bebek, and Kamburun; in Çanakkale at Sultaniye, Gelibolu, Kumkale; and in the Hellas region. Not stopping there, in the following year, lighthouses were also built in Yeşilköy, Ahırkapı, Kızkulesi; in the Sea of Marmara at Feneradası; and in Çanakkale at Kilitbahir, Nara Burnu, Karakova Burnu, and Çardak, with the construction of other lighthouses continuing over time.
The construction of docks where commercial ships could berth in the Istanbul harbor and the regulation of port services could only be addressed 23 years later, in 1879. Building a dock along the shore, especially in a place like the Golden Horn where there are coastal currents and the bottom is covered with mud, was both difficult and risky. No one wanted to venture into such an adventure, to bury their money in the waters of the Golden Horn. After long discussions, the privilege to build a dock in the harbor and operate these docks for 75 years was granted to Marius Michel, the General Director of the Lighthouses Administration, who would later be known as Michel Pasha. Marius Michel was French and had served as a long-distance captain for the Imperial Transportation Company during the Crimean War. He was a savvy, knowledgeable, forward-looking person who knew how to protect his interests very well. When he arrived in Istanbul with his ship, he saw that there were many things he could do in this country; he realized that he would soon become wealthy. With this intention, he established close relationships with influential individuals in the Ottoman Empire and succeeded in obtaining the lighthouse privilege in 1857. Now, Michel Pasha had set his sights on the Istanbul harbor and its revenues. He would start by constructing docks in the Istanbul harbor and would operate the harbor for 75 years upon completion. In short, he would receive a certain fee for the trade goods loaded onto the ships entering the harbor as compensation for his services. This meant that even if he would give a certain percentage to the state, it would still add to his wealth. Michel Pasha knew he was entering a difficult job, but he had no doubt that he would come out profitable in the end.
Osman Öndeş states in his article in the Vira Haber magazine dated April 28, 2025: "Michel Pasha became immensely wealthy thanks to the income he obtained from the lighthouses along the coasts of the Ottoman Empire. He became so rich that, using the income from the lighthouses he continuously built along the Ottoman Empire's coasts, he rebuilt a holiday resort in Sanary on the southern shores of France, and when he returned to southern France, his love for Istanbul never faded! Eventually, he bought the entire Tamaris Bay near Toulon, where he built mansions, docks, and Bosphorus ferries, decorating Tamaris with a casino, hotels, a marina, magnificent mansions, and about dozens of unique villas. Marius Michel Pasha also built two chateaus in Tamaris. The entire wealth in Tamaris Bay was thanks to the income he obtained from the Ottoman Empire's lighthouses."
DOCK CONSTRUCTION BEGINS
Due to the financial and technical difficulties encountered, the construction of the docks was delayed from 1879 to 1890, a span of 11 years. The founders could only find a contractor capable of carrying out the dock works after 11 years of searching, in 1890. During this time, the technical situation was thoroughly examined, and it became clear that the contract needed to be renewed in light of the difficulties of the job. According to the contract prepared in 1890, the concession period was extended to 85 years, thus prolonging it until 1975.
According to the new specifications, a company was to be established within 18 months, work was to begin within two years, and the construction of the docks was to be completed within 14 years. The company was also required to build docks between the two bridges in the Golden Horn.
In return for all this, the company would collect a mooring fee of 1 franc per ton from the ships that would dock at the docks, a dock tax of 3 francs per ton for goods and trade items loaded onto or unloaded from the ships, a monthly wharfage fee of 100 kuruş for every 100 kilos of goods placed in the docks and warehouses, and subscription fees from passenger ferries, tugboats, and lighters that continuously docked or moored at the docks. Meanwhile, the land gained from the sea during the construction of the docks would be left to the company free of charge.
However, the company would only pay a small portion of the gross profit obtained from the operation of the docks to the state. Additionally, according to the terms of the concession, it was required to construct buildings, docks, and warehouses for customs, sanitation, and port authorities, all of which would later be handed over to the state, and no damage would be done to the Hidayet Mosque from the II. Mahmud period and the Selim Efendi Mosque in Eminönü. The company also obtained the right to build warehouses anywhere on the Rumeli side within 100 miles, which included the port of Tekirdağ. On the other hand, starting from the end of the 40th year of the concession period, the state always had the right to purchase the docks, warehouses, and so on to operate them directly. These were the main outlines of the new concession granted to Michel Pasha. Thus, the Istanbul Dock, Warehouse, and Depot Turkish Joint Stock Company was established in 1891 with a capital of 23 million francs, divided into 46,000 shares of 500 francs each. The concession holder Michel Pasha transferred the concession to the company in exchange for 3 million francs worth of shares, as required by the provisions set forth. The period was that of Sultan II. Abdülhamid's reign. The company was established with financial support from the Credit Lyonnais Bank.
The first Chairman of the Board of Directors of the company was Marius Michel, who had since acquired the title of Michel Pasha. The representative member was M. Granet, one of the former ministers. The construction of the docks began in April 1892 in front of Tophane. The works were led by M. Duparchy and M. Dirick, who had previously conducted surveys. At the site where the works were to be carried out, the depth in front of the shore occasionally exceeded 35 meters, and the ground was covered with a dense layer of soft mud. In some places, the shore dropped steeply into the depths. It was understood from the very first days that many serious difficulties would be encountered throughout the construction, whether technical or scientific.
DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN DOCK CONSTRUCTION
After long examinations, it was decided to begin the works by constructing a dam made of various filling materials such as large boulders and concrete blocks into the sea. After the subsidence encountered during the dredging works was addressed, vertical dock stones made of artificial blocks would be placed on top of this dam. Despite the difficulties encountered in the quarries, dredging operations continued without interruption.
In 1893, the placement of the first artificial blocks began. A powerful tugboat was purchased, and all kinds of materials were provided for construction. By the end of that year, the contractors had completed their program for the construction of the dam, producing 232,000 cubic meters of dredging and 157,000 cubic meters of filling. Throughout that year and the following year, despite the challenges faced, work continued from Tophane towards Karaköy.
What were the difficulties encountered? Aside from strong winds and occasionally intensified currents, a cholera outbreak significantly hampered the work. Additionally, the waves from passing steamers and occasional subsidence slowed down the progress of the work.
It was 1894. Block stones had been placed along 340 meters on the Galata side, and drilling had just begun on the opposite shore, on the Sirkeci side, when an unforeseen disaster struck the works: a violent earthquake on July 10 that shook all of Istanbul to its foundations!
In the disaster, 138 people died and 156 were injured in the first three days in Istanbul. Meanwhile, significant material damage occurred: parts of the Grand Bazaar collapsed, the Mihrimah Mosque in Edirnekapı suffered great damage, and some baths, mosques, churches, and station buildings became unusable. The newly constructed Sirkeci station, the Harbiye Ministry building in Beyazıt, and the Gazanferağa madrasa were damaged. Fortunately, there was no disastrous situation like the sudden collapse of the dock that had been built up to that time, disappearing into the dark waters of the Golden Horn.
At a stage where construction had progressed significantly, the idea of mooring the first ship and starting to operate the dock, good or bad, was considered, but this attempt could not be realized. The boatmen and lighters who had been making a living by transporting passengers and cargo by ship protested, wanting to inform the authorities that their livelihoods were being taken away. And they did! In the end, they managed to obtain a decree from the Palace to temporarily prevent incoming ships from mooring at the dock. The company now had to deal with such issues.
FINALLY, DOCK CONSTRUCTION IS COMPLETED
By the beginning of 1895, 285 meters of the dock had been completed on the Galata side, block stones had been placed over an area of 670 meters, and an area of 500 meters had been filled.
The first ship was moored at the Galata dock in September of that year; it was the ship Memphis of the Messageries Maritimes company. Thus, the first fruit of three years of work was harvested.
Although an agreement had been reached, the boatmen and lighters attempted to prevent the unloading of the trade goods brought by the ship. Just as unpleasantness and confusion were about to arise, the quick arrival of soldiers prevented these men from causing an uprising; the cargo on the ship was unloaded without incident.
Could such chaos arise, and could European states refrain from resolving their issues based on capitulations? Immediately, they initiated efforts with the government, bringing their requests to a fait accompli, and somehow managed to significantly reduce their taxes.
At that time, several buoys were placed at the harbor entrance. Initially, they were not placed in suitable locations, causing them to occasionally get entangled with each other. In such cases, a lighter was brought in to anchor the buoys in more suitable locations.
In October 1895, a commission of scientists convened and signed the acceptance of the first section of the Galata docks on behalf of the government. The contractors completed their work on the Galata side in five years, spending 15,273,497 francs to construct a dock 758 meters long.
EMİNÖNÜ DOCK CONSTRUCTION BEGINS
Meanwhile, the company had also begun dredging works on the opposite shore, starting to dump large boulders and blocks into the sea along the coast. While the construction of the dock on the Galata side was relatively easy, the works on the Istanbul side faced significant difficulties. The dredging began in 1894, and considerable progress was made in the dumping of dredged materials within the following year. However, during that time, the first subsidence occurred. The increasing subsidence became a genuinely dangerous situation. Over time, collapses and slides increased: in Eminönü, next to the bridge, at the Customs Warehouse, the subsidence reached two meters in some places. Given the dangers encountered, it was necessary to evacuate the customs buildings as soon as possible.
On July 10, 1896, all the dock stones and blocks collapsed and disappeared into the depths of the sea. The dock wall made of artificial blocks was not only submerged between 8-12 meters but also shifted outward, with 55,000 cubic meters of dredging and 214 artificial blocks vanishing in the dark waters of the sea in an instant. There was nothing to do but start the work again. The company rolled up its sleeves and began the work from scratch. Teams worked tirelessly. By October, the damages had been rectified, and the dock wall had been rebuilt over a 200-meter area.
However, the occurrence of another subsidence within October caused those who had invested in this project to worry. It had become increasingly clear that constructing on a layer of watery mud that reached depths of 40 meters would be more challenging and costly than anticipated.
Once again, work had to start anew. Experts were consulted, new drilling was conducted, and new dredging materials were brought in to replace the materials that had rolled into the mud; all these efforts required an additional sacrifice of approximately 5 million francs. To increase the volume of dredging, new quarries had to be opened in the Sea of Marmara, in the Hayırsız Islands, at the Black Sea entrance of the Bosphorus.
By May 1898, significant progress had been made, but the unimaginable happened again: the docks and dredging done up to that point suddenly collapsed once more, disappearing completely beneath the sea. The vertical subsidence was between 8-12 meters, and the flow towards the sea was between 5-12 meters. Desperate, work had to start again, and it was necessary to fill the front of the dam, which had not changed much in profile, with a layer of sand reaching up to 60,000 cubic meters. Only after that could the continuation of construction be ensured. Thus, on June 25, 1899, the temporary acceptance of the first section of the dock on the Istanbul side was signed.
The difficulties encountered stemmed from the fact that the seabed at the site of the dock was covered with a dense layer of clay, reaching depths of 65 meters, and above it, a layer of mud 20 meters thick.
The works on the remaining part of the dock continued relatively more easily and safely in light of the experiences previously gained. By February 1900, the length of the Sirkeci Dock had reached 370 meters. However, the cost of the uninterrupted construction over five years was far above the initial estimates. For instance, stating that each meter of the dock on the Istanbul side cost 32,000 golden francs, which was eight or nine times the anticipated amount, would suffice to indicate how much the costs had risen.
According to the agreement signed initially, the company was also obliged to build a dock along the shore between the two bridges. While the relevant parties prepared the plans and drawings for the docks to be built, they also requested the government to hand over the areas where the works would be carried out to the company. Meanwhile, discussions were initiated regarding the removal of the Unkapanı Bridge and the relocation of the Galata Bridge. However, after lengthy discussions, it was decided to abandon both the removal of the Unkapanı Bridge and the inward shifting of the Galata Bridge.
EMİNÖNÜ
Source: SeaNews Türkiye
